This paper absorbs and replaces material that previously circulated under the title “Consumption Access and the Spatial Concentration of Economic Activity: Evidence from Smartphone Data.” Thanks to Gabriel Ahlfeldt, Milena Almagro, Daniel Sturm, Gabriel Kreindler, Tobias Salz and conference and seminar participants for helpful comments. We are grateful to Takeshi Fukasawa, Peter Deffebach, and Yun-Ting Yeh for excellent research assistance. The usual disclaimer applies. “Konzatsu-Tokei (R)" Data refers to people flow data constructed from individual location information sent from mobile phones under users’ consent, through applications provided by NTT DOCOMO, INC (including mapping application Docomo Chizu NAVI). Those data are processed collectively and statistically in order to conceal private information. Original location data is GPS data (latitude, longitude) sent every five minutes (minimum), and it does not include information to specify individual. The copyrights of all tables and figures presented in this document belong to ZENRIN DataCom CO., LTD. We also acknowledge Yaichi Aoshima at Hitotsubashi University for coordinating the project with ZENRIN DataCom Co,. LTD.; Murata Foundation, Heiwa Nakajima Foundation, The Kajima Foundation, Obayashi Foundation, JSPS KAKENHI (Grant No. 21H00703), and the Hitotsubashi University for their financial support; CSIS at the University of Tokyo for the joint research support (Project No. 954). The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.